ON saturday i went to do same sing at my church because we have other man to lend our church and we had to sing 3 song on sunday then we sing 4 song on this sunday and i believe we are go to have a big fend with lot’s of samoa food and our church man well be go to other church to lend there’s and i think the time that church will start  at 10.00am and some time our church will be finishing at 12.34 pm if the church man is go far like willington and i think he is go some where is not that far same time i get to sleep because it is  so long and because he is coming our church have to make a gift for him but we do it the samoa it go like this we gave him a wine and 9,000 rap a round the wine and a toaga mat we gave them two of those and that is the end of ENOSA WEEKEND. 

Green Sickness, the Strange Condition That Affected Young Virgins in the 17th Century

In the 17th century, the paleness and extreme weakness of unmarried teenage girls sparked medical and social fears, while society and literature reflected prejudices about their health and morality.

In 17th-century London, dozens of young women died each year from the so-called “green sickness,” a diagnosis that has disappeared from modern medicine.

The phenomenon was recorded mainly among adolescent girls around the 1650s. The condition worried doctors, families, and authorities, who tried to explain its causes and search for possible treatments. The term marked medical history for centuries, although today its meaning is unclear.

According to the National Institutes of Health, the first medical descriptions of the illness highlighted several symptoms. Affected girls showed pale faces, extreme weakness, difficulty eating, swollen ankles, and a pronounced apathy.

As JSTOR Daily explained, many physicians of the period associated the disease exclusively with young women who had not married. Thus emerged the popular expression “the sickness of virgins,” reinforcing the idea that a particular marital status had a direct connection with health.

John Graunt, considered a pioneer of statistics in England, analysed the phenomenon in the British capital. In his reports, he used euphemisms to avoid explicit details about a supposed sexual cause, since in that era it was shameful to mention such things.

In that sense, Graunt recorded in his mortality table “Stopping of the Stomach,” but clarified that he was in fact referring to green sickness.

A Symptom of Its Time—and of Literature

For centuries, the illness also held a notable place in popular culture. Shakespeare used the term in Romeo and Juliet and in Henry IV, Part 2 to ridicule or highlight weaknesses. References to a pale, sickly appearance reinforced the idea of a link between physical health and the emotional or social state of adolescents.

According to historian Winfried Schleiner, the sickness became so well known that it turned into a device in political satire, literature, and theatre of the era.

Girls with “green sickness” provoked not only medical concern but also sharp comments and jokes about their personal and social situation. The most widespread description included pale faces and “a trembling heart at the slightest effort.”

According to the National Institutes of Health, the name comes from the Greek chloros, meaning yellow-green, highlighting the pale appearance of those affected. Sixteenth-century physicians such as Johann Lange and Rodrigo a Castro interpreted the illness as being connected to imbalances of the “humours” and attributed its cause to the retention of “bad blood” due to lack of sexual activity or overly narrow blood vessels.

Since recommending marriage for all young women was not possible, they suggested bloodletting or enemas as alternative treatments, especially in the case of women devoted to religious life.

The condition remained tied to femininity for generations. However, some literary works extended the term—mockingly—to men who did not drink alcohol or lacked romantic experience. These uses demonstrated the symbolic and social weight of the diagnosis, far beyond any proven physiological basis.

Helen King, quoted by Schleiner, found that mentions of “green sickness” appeared in medical manuals up until the 1920s. Nonetheless, the diagnosis vanished from the list of recognised diseases during the 20th century. The reasons for its disappearance relate both to changes in social customs and to the medical understanding of the symptoms.

According to various studies, physicians of the time confused manifestations of real anaemias with social and moral notions related to virginity. Modern medicine identifies anaemia as a condition caused by nutritional deficiencies, chronic illnesses, or other factors, without any link to marital status or moral issues.

Some chronicles and satirical verses—such as those referring to the Duke of Monmouth—reinforced the idea that only marriage or sexual relations could “cure” the illness in young women.

This deepened the social stigmatisation of unmarried women or those who did not wish to marry, labelling them as sick because of their status.

Over time, the notion of “green sickness” functioned as a reflection of the prejudices and scientific ignorance surrounding the health of adolescent girls.

Blood smear showing hypochromic (and microcytic) anaemia. Note the increased central pallor of the red blood cells (Wikimedia).

The diagnosis revealed the interaction of cultural, medical, and religious factors in a period in which access to medical knowledge was limited and dominated by beliefs inherited from Antiquity.

Today, there is no evidence whatsoever linking the lack of marriage to haematological diseases. The disappearance of the term “green sickness” and its erasure from contemporary medicine show how diagnoses can be influenced more by social values than by scientific evidence.

According to specialists like Helen King and Winfried Schleiner, the study of “green sickness” makes it possible to understand how society interpreted the symptoms of young women and how science evolved by leaving behind myths and moving toward an understanding based on verifiable data and clinical observation.

Reading Comprehension Activity

Text: Green Sickness: The Strange Condition That Affected Young Women in the 17th Century

A. True or False (Write T or F)

Correct the false statements.

1. _F__ “Green sickness” mainly affected adult married women in the 17th century.

2. __T_ Girls with the sickness often had pale faces, weakness, and trouble eating.

3. _T_ Shakespeare mentioned green sickness in at least two of his plays.

4. _T_ Doctors of the time believed green sickness was caused by imbalances in the “humours.”

5. __F_ Modern medicine still recognises green sickness as a real disease today.

6. _T__ The sickness was commonly linked to young women who were not married.

7. _T__ The name “green sickness” comes from a Greek word meaning “yellow-green.”

8. _T__ Some doctors suggested marriage as a possible “treatment.”

9. _F__ Green sickness was only ever used to describe women, never men.

10. _T__ Today we know that the symptoms were actually caused by types of anaemia.

B. Multiple Choice Questions

Choose the best answer.

1. In which century was green sickness most commonly reported?
   a) 14th century
   b) 17th century
   c) 19th century
   d) 21st century

2. What was unusual about how people understood the sickness in the 1600s?
   a) They believed it was linked to social and moral ideas.
   b) They thought it came from dangerous animals.
   c) They believed it only affected wealthy families.
   d) They thought it was contagious like the plague.

3. What symptom was not mentioned in the text?
   a) Pale skin
   b) Swollen ankles
   c) Extreme weakness
   d) High fever

4. Why did John Graunt use euphemisms in his reports?
   a) He was unsure how to spell the real name.
   b) It was shameful at the time to mention sexual causes.
   c) He wanted to hide the sickness from the king.
   d) He believed the sickness did not truly exist.

5. Which of these is a reason the term “green sickness” disappeared?
   a) It was too long to write in medical books.
   b) Medicine began relying more on science than social beliefs.
   c) The government banned doctors from using it.
   d) People stopped getting sick.

6. The Greek word chloros refers to:
   a) strong heat
   b) greenish-yellow colour
   c) pain or illness
   d) sadness or grief

7. What treatment did some doctors recommend when marriage was not possible?
   a) Drinking herbal tea
   b) Bloodletting or enemas
   c) Cold baths
   d) Long walks outdoors

8. Literary works used green sickness to:
   a) praise the health of teenagers
   b) make fun of characters or symbolise weakness
   c) promote medical knowledge
   d) teach moral lessons to adults

9. Who extended the term mockingly to certain men?
   a) Military officers
   b) Poets and playwrights
   c) Scientists
   d) Doctors

10. What connection does modern medicine make between green sickness symptoms and real illness?
    a) They match symptoms of anaemia.
    b) They match symptoms of allergies.
    c) They match symptoms of poisoning.
    d) They match symptoms of dehydration.

C. Short Answer Questions

Answer in complete sentences.

1. What age group was mainly affected by green sickness? adolescent girls and young, unmarried women, typically around the age of puberty (ages 14-15)

2. Why did society judge or mock girls with this condition? Society historically judged and mocked girls and women with various conditions primarily due to “hysteria,” a now-defunct “catch-all” medical diagnosis rooted in misogyny and a lack of scientific understanding.

3. How did Shakespeare use green sickness in his plays? to refer to a real anemic medical condition thought to affect adolescent women, and metaphorically as a descriptor for intense jealousy and envy.

4. What does the text say about how doctors misunderstood the illness?
   However, based on general texts and research about diagnostic errors and patient-doctor communication, doctors can misunderstand an illness due to several factors:

D. Critical Thinking Questions

Answer in 3–5 sentences. Use evidence from the text.

1. What does green sickness teach us about how society once misunderstood women’s health? demonstrates how historical medicine often framed women’s health conditions not as physiological ailments but as moral or social problems rooted in female biology and social expectations, particularly around sexuality, marriage, and female “fragility”

2. Do you think social beliefs still influence how people understand certain illnesses today? 

Yes, social beliefs continue to significantly influence how people understand, perceive, and respond to various illnesses in contemporary society

1. Why is it important for science to base diagnoses on evidence rather than traditions or prejudices? It is critical for science to base diagnoses on evidence rather than traditions or prejudices to ensure effectiveness, ethics, and patient safety  This approach is fundamental to providing reliable healthcare

The Concorde’s Final Flight
The Sad End of the World’s Fastest Airplane and the Tragedy That Turned It Into a Museum Piece

On Wednesday, 26 November 2003, a small British airport witnessed the landing of its final journey. This is the story of the supersonic aircraft that reached 2,500 kilometres per hour and became the favourite of the rich and famous all over the world. It crossed the skies for more than three decades without a single accident—until a small object on a runway caused a crash that killed 114 people.

It was the king of the skies and, in keeping with its title, its final flight was planned and carried out to resemble the route of a royal carriage on its way to the monarch’s final resting place. On Wednesday, 26 November 2003, the British Airways supersonic aircraft Concorde G-BOAF pointed toward the runway and touched down softly at the small Bristol Filton air terminal, in the southwest of England, its final stop before being transferred to the Aviation Museum. And so, discreetly after much pomp, the world’s most luxurious, fastest, and most glamorous airplane said its last goodbye after more than three decades of crossing the Atlantic on the shortest flights in the history of commercial aviation, linking Paris and London with New York. The final ceremony—an exhibition flight from London Heathrow Airport, flying over the Clifton Suspension Bridge before finally landing on the small Bristol Filton runway—was also the culmination of the chronicle of a death foretold months earlier, in April of that same year, when Air France and British Airways announced the imminent end of their Concorde operations.

The Concorde’s agony had been long and painful, but its final flights—because there was more than one—resembled that sudden improvement some patients show shortly before they die. At a time when seat demand had dropped drastically, those last flights went out completely full. After announcing it would retire the Concorde from its fleet, Air France made its last commercial transatlantic flight on 30 May 2003, from Paris to New York, with a plane carrying only VIP passengers and high-ranking company employees. Afterwards, the same aircraft made several exhibition flights across the United States until returning to France on 27 June, when it landed in Toulouse never to take off again.

British Airways offered a much longer farewell programme, both in time and distance. It was as if the Concorde refused to retire. The English airline organised a final tour of Canada and the United States, which began on 1 October in Toronto and ended on the 14th of the same month at Washington D.C.’s Dulles Airport. That was followed by another exhibition tour around the United Kingdom, during which British Airways’ Concordes visited Birmingham, Belfast, Manchester, Cardiff, and Edinburgh, always flying at low altitude from Heathrow so everyone could see them from the ground. The final destination of the last Concorde ever to fly was that small Bristol Filton airport, almost out of sight, as if to give the death of the fastest supersonic commercial aircraft in history a proper and respectful intimacy.

An Emblem of the Cold War

It was also the farewell of a symbol because, in addition to being the fastest commercial airplane on the planet, the Concorde had played a fundamental role in the technological and propaganda competition between the West and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. And in that contest, it had won. Produced by an Anglo-French consortium, it first took to the air in 1969 and broke the sound barrier for the first time in November 1970. Its designers were not satisfied with that, and nine years later, at the end of 1979, it doubled that speed when the aircraft reached 2,500 kilometres per hour for 53 minutes during a regular flight.

While subsonic commercial aircraft took around 8 hours to complete a journey between Paris and New York, the Concorde—with its Rolls-Royce engines—only needed about 3 hours and 30 minutes. Its maximum altitude was 18,300 metres, and its cruising speed was 2,410 kilometres per hour, more than double the average speed of conventional aircraft. Beyond the technical details, it was a luxury airplane with capacity for one hundred passengers, who could only fly if they paid the 9,000-dollar ticket price. Of course, its quiet ride, the unlimited champagne on board, the caviar snacks, and the catering prepared by the most famous French chefs made passengers forget the cost as they settled into its rows of four seats—far more comfortable than the seven-seat rows offered by Boeing jets.

Victory over its Soviet competitors came quickly. The Tupolev supersonic project, designed by the Russian engineer of the same name, ended tragically after two of its engines caught fire in mid-air in 1973 during an air show in Le Bourget, France. The Concorde, by contrast, continued slicing through the skies at a speed no rival could match.

It was also considered the safest airplane in the world—a claim backed not by advertising but by data. Aside from a landing in New York in 1979 with a deflated tyre, which caused nothing more than a small jolt during taxiing, it entered the 21st century with a record no other commercial aircraft model could boast: more than three decades of flights without accidents. That remained true until Tuesday, 25 July 2000, in Paris, when the aircraft—and its prestige—fell to the ground just three minutes after take-off, leaving 114 dead in one of the most tragic and spectacular accidents—because it unfolded in full view of everyone—in the history of commercial aviation.

“There’s fire in one of the engines!”

That day, on the outskirts of the French capital, the Concorde’s death certificate began to be written. The clocks at Charles de Gaulle International Airport read exactly 16:44:55 when Air France flight 4590, bound for New York, was speeding down the main runway at more than 300 kilometres per hour, ready to lift off. Suddenly, a desperate shout from the control tower operator echoed in the cockpit:

—Stop the takeoff! There’s fire in one of the engines!

—Failure in engine number 2 —pilot Christian Marty replied calmly. —The fire is spreading. It’s too late to abort. We’ll climb and turn toward Le Bourget for an emergency landing.

The airplane managed to lift off, trailed by a long plume of fire coming from its left side. The pilot turned it in a manoeuvre that looked like an acrobatic twist, but nothing could be done: the aircraft fell into a cornfield five kilometres from the runway, a few metres from a hotel, and exploded. The clock read 16:47. Everything had happened in a little more than two minutes. On board were 100 passengers and 9 crew members. With its fuel tanks full, the airplane burst into flames upon impact and disintegrated into thousands of pieces. One flaming section flew into a nearby Hotelissimo hotel—an all-wood structure with 45 rooms. The flames spread quickly, leaving five guests trapped with no escape; they burned to death. The total toll was 114 victims. After 31 years ruling the skies undefeated, the Concorde’s first and only accident set it on a path of no return toward its disappearance. Soon, there would be another victim: the king of the skies itself.

Suspicions About a Part

As soon as the last flames were extinguished, firefighters handed control over to a team of aeronautical experts, who searched the wreckage for crucial components needed for the investigation. “Keep an eye out for any birds,” one of the orders went—they could not rule out the possibility that a bird had been sucked into an engine. At midnight, they found the black boxes, which were immediately taken to Paris. The official investigation, under the charge of “involuntary manslaughter,” was assigned to the Prosecutor’s Office of the High Court of Pontoise, which immediately ordered the suspension of all Concorde flights in France.

At the same time, Air France Communications Director François Bouzet was trying to extinguish another fire. One of the first pieces of information journalists obtained was that the flight had taken off 66 minutes late due to “technical difficulties.” That detail might hold the key to the accident. During a press conference at Charles de Gaulle Airport, a reporter pressed Bouzet to explain what kind of technical issues had caused the delay.

—Pilot Christian Marty and copilot Jean Marcot exercised their right to request a technical inspection before departure —Bouzet replied.

—And what came out of that inspection? —the journalist asked again.

—Captain Marty insisted a part be replaced in engine number 2…

—Can you identify the part? —the journalist interrupted.

—The rear thrust reverser —Bouzet said, bracing for the unavoidable question.

—Wasn’t engine number 2 the one that caught fire?

—Yes, but it is absolutely impossible at this time to attribute the cause of the accident to that repair. I urge you not to be carried away by unfounded rumours —he responded.

It was the only possible answer, to which he could only add a plea.

Rumours of Every Kind

Bouzet’s plea had no effect because, by then, rumours were everywhere. One particularly suggestive one claimed that if there had been a problem in one of the engines, an alarm should have sounded during the takeoff roll, which would have allowed the pilot to abort. If the alarm had not sounded, it was clear that some safety system had failed—a line of investigation the experts were pursuing. “The pilot realised there was a malfunction in engine number 2, but by then he was no longer able to stop the aircraft due to its speed,” said Prosecutor’s Office spokesperson Élisabeth Senot.

To make matters worse, André Turcat, the pilot who had commanded the Concorde’s first test flight in 1969, added fuel to the fire. In his opinion, the cause of the accident was far more serious than a simple engine failure. “If that were the case, the crew would have noticed when the plane was going 300 kilometres per hour. At that point, it is still possible to stop the aircraft. This has been well demonstrated, certified, and all Concorde pilots are trained for it. So it must have been something much more serious,” he said, intensifying suspicions that the company was trying to hide something by redirecting attention elsewhere.

The engine manufacturer, Snecma Olympus, soon joined the discussion. With its product under global scrutiny, the company defended it fiercely: “In 24 years of service and nearly one million flight hours, there has never been the slightest problem,” explained Steve Fushelberg, Rolls-Royce’s Director of Public Relations, speaking from London.

Another sensitive point was that the Concorde involved in the accident was the oldest of the 13 aircraft in service. Built in 1975, it had accumulated 11,989 flight hours. The previous year, it had undergone a complete inspection, and four days before the tragedy it had passed its most recent regulatory check. Many suggested that the revolutionary supersonic aircraft was simply getting too old to fly safely.

Due to the Le Bourget tragedy, all Concorde flights were suspended for more than three months while investigators worked on the case. Their findings were surprising: the cause of the tragedy resulted from an oversight unrelated to the Concorde, its mechanics, or its pilots. The French Bureau of Air Accident Investigations determined—based on the black box data, the wreckage analysis, and above all, airport video recordings—that the accident had been caused by a metal strip that had fallen off another plane, a Continental Airlines DC-10, which had taken off minutes earlier.

The metal strip lying unnoticed on the runway punctured one of the Concorde’s tyres when the plane was already travelling at 300 kilometres per hour. The tyre exploded, and one of the rubber fragments struck a fuel tank, rupturing a valve in the left wing. This caused a fuel leak that caught fire when it contacted sparks from damaged wiring.

The Pilot’s Heroic Cool-Headedness

Additionally, recordings from the Concorde’s black boxes revealed that, thanks to a heroic and desperate action by the pilot, an even greater catastrophe had been avoided. The strange twist the Concorde made in the air before crashing was due to Commander Christian Marty’s final act of lucidity—already aware that the aircraft would fall and he would die—steering the plane away from a populated area that included a hospital and several hotels. Had he not done so, the number of victims would have been far greater. “If it hadn’t been for the pilot, the tragedy could have been much worse: when he saw he could no longer control the aircraft and that it was going down, he avoided the cluster of hotels near Le Bourget and, with tremendous composure, aimed for an open field,” an investigator’s spokesperson said when presenting the final accident report.

The heroic action of pilot Christian Marty prompted another retired Concorde pilot, former commander Claude Hetru, to back the report’s conclusions: “When you pilot a Concorde, you are not piloting an airplane—you are piloting a Concorde. It is something special, unique… And those of us who flew it—pardon the lack of modesty—are also special,” he told journalists.

On 6 December 2010—more than a decade after the accident—Continental Airlines and John Taylor, one of its mechanics, were convicted of involuntary manslaughter for the metal strip that caused the crash of flight 4590.

By then, it was too late. The Concordes had not flown in more than seven years. Since the accident on 25 July 2000, the number of passengers on supersonic flights had dropped so drastically that continuing operations became economically unsustainable. Added to that were the aftershocks of the September 11 attacks, which affected all airlines’ passenger traffic and sealed the fate of the king of the skies.

Today, the 16 Concorde aircraft used by Air France and British Airways, along with two prototypes, are displayed in museums around the world. Thus, the fastest airplane in history was reduced to an old museum piece.

Reading Comprehension Activity

Text: The Concorde’s Final Flight

A. Understanding the Main Ideas (True or False)

Write T for True or F for False. Correct the false statements.

1. _T__ The Concorde’s last flight landed at a small airport in Bristol called Filton.

2. _F__ The Concorde was in service for only 10 years.

3. _T__ Both British Airways and Air France retired the Concorde in 2003.

4. _F__ The Concorde was slower than regular commercial aircraft.

5. _T__ The Concorde’s only fatal accident happened in Paris in the year 2000.

6. _T__ A metal strip from another aircraft caused the tragedy.

7. _T__ The Concorde could fly from Paris to New York in under 4 hours.

8. _T__ The aircraft was known for being uncomfortable and noisy inside.

9. _F__ The pilot tried to land immediately after detecting the fire.

10. _F__ After the accident, the Concorde continued flying for many more years.

B. Multiple Choice Questions (Choose the best answer)

1. What made the Concorde unique compared to other airplanes?
   a) It could carry 400 passengers
   b) It was the fastest commercial aircraft
   c) It was the cheapest aircraft to fly on
   d) It was made entirely of plastic

2. Why did the final flights of the Concorde become very popular?
   a) Tickets were free
   b) People wanted to be part of history
   c) The flights were longer than usual
   d) The plane had brand-new engines

3. What caused the 2000 Paris accident?
   a) Bad weather
   b) A pilot error
   c) A piece of metal on the runway
   d) A fuel mix-up

4. What did the pilot, Christian Marty, do during the accident?
   a) Tried to land in the ocean
   b) Steered the plane away from crowded buildings
   c) Flew higher to escape the fire
   d) Ejected from the plane

5. Why did the Concorde become too expensive to operate?
   a) It needed too much fuel and had fewer passengers
   b) It was banned worldwide
   c) Other airlines refused to fly with it
   d) The engines were stolen

6. Where did the Concorde first break the sound barrier?
   a) 1969
   b) 1970
   c) 1973
   d) 2000

7. How long did it take for a regular (subsonic) plane to cross the Atlantic?
   a) 3 hours
   b) 6 hours
   c) 8 hours
   d) 12 hours

8. What happened after the accident in 2000?
   a) Concorde flights increased
   b) Flights were suspended for months
   c) A new supersonic plane replaced the Concorde
   d) The Concorde was banned immediately worldwide

9. What was the Concorde’s seating capacity?
   a) About 50 passengers
   b) About 100 passengers
   c) About 250 passengers
   d) About 500 passengers

10. What happened to the Concorde fleet after retirement?
    a) They were recycled
    b) They were sold to private owners
    c) They were placed in museums
    d) They were converted into restaurants

C. Short Answer Questions

1. Why was the Concorde considered a symbol during the Cold War? The Concorde was considered a symbol during the Cold War primarily as an icon of Western technological prowess, national prestige, and a direct competitor in the “supersonic race” against the Soviet Union.

2. Describe two luxury features passengers enjoyed on the Concorde. Two luxury features passengers enjoyed on the Concorde were its high-end, multi-course meals served with fine china and silver cutlery, and the unparalleled views from cruising at over 50,000 feet, where the sky appeared dark purple and the Earth’s curvature was visible.

3. Why was the final flight compared to a “royal carriage” funeral procession? The “final flight” of Queen Elizabeth II’s coffin, from Edinburgh to London, was compared to a “royal carriage” funeral procession because it was a moment of solemn and historic pageantry that evoked traditional royal funeral customs.

4. What did the investigation reveal about the cause of the crash? The user’s query is general and does not specify which crash they are asking about. The most prominent recent crash with significant investigation details released is Air India Flight 171 (June 2025). The preliminary investigation into that incident found that the engines lost power shortly after takeoff because both fuel-control switches moved to the “cut-off” position.

5. Explain why the Concorde is now seen as a “museum piece.”

D. Critical Thinking Questions (Open-Ended)

Give detailed answers using evidence from the text.

1. Do you think supersonic passenger flights should be brought back in the future? Why or why not? Whether supersonic passenger flights should be brought back is a complex debate with strong arguments for and against

2. Was it fair for Continental Airlines to be held responsible for the accident? Explain your thinking. Continental Airlines was held responsible for the Colgan Air Flight 3407 accident, primarily in civil litigation, because it was the major airline partner that marketed and sold the tickets under its “Continental Connection” brand, making it liable in the public’s eyes and legally subject to a “non-delegable duty” in many jurisdictions, despite Colgan Air being the actual operator

The pilot’s actions saved many lives. What does this tell you about the role and responsibility of pilots during emergencies? The actions of a pilot who saves lives during an emergency highlight several critical aspects of their role and responsibilities

The Disaster of the White Ship:
a Captain, a Succession at Stake, and the Beginning of an Unprecedented Crisis
The shipwreck that took place on November 25, 1120 was not only a maritime catastrophe—it also exposed the fragility of the Anglo-Norman succession system, unleashing years of civil war and devastation in England.

On the night of November 25, 1120, a tragic maritime accident altered the course of English history. The sinking of the White Ship not only claimed the lives of hundreds of nobles but also triggered a deep succession crisis that completely destabilised the Anglo-Norman monarchy. The magnitude of the disaster shook the foundations of the dynasty and revealed the fragility of a system of power sustained by hereditary rule.

The Fateful Night of the White Ship

According to accounts compiled years later by the monk Orderic Vitalis, the captain Thomas FitzStephen—descendant of the man who had carried William the Conqueror during his invasion of England—offered his services to King Henry I, though he was ultimately assigned to transport William Adelin and his entourage. The outcome was catastrophic: the vessel struck a rock, sank into icy waters, and nearly 300 people perished.

“Even in an age when sudden death was common, losing so many nobles in a single accident was devastating,” explained Professor Hugh Thomas of the University of Miami to National Geographic.

The tragedy plunged England into disarray. Professor Nicholas Paul of Fordham University highlighted the symbolic weight of the event for the period: “Any event of this magnitude could only be interpreted as a sign of divine disapproval against the Anglo-Norman dynasty. How was stability to be restored, and how should such an action be correctly interpreted?” he remarked in an interview with National Geographic.

Succession Crisis and the Struggle for Power

The impact of the White Ship disaster went far beyond the immediate. The death of William Adelin meant the collapse of the direct line of succession to the throne. Although Henry I had numerous illegitimate children, Adelin was his only legitimate male heir. Suddenly, the continuity of the dynasty was called into question.

In a desperate attempt to secure the succession, Henry I remarried, but he failed to produce another male heir. Eventually, he designated his daughter Matilda as successor. However, in a patriarchal society, the idea of a queen was quickly challenged. Stephen of Blois, Matilda’s cousin, took advantage of the situation and, after the king’s death in 1135, crossed the Channel swiftly and crowned himself king before Matilda could claim her rights.

According to Professor Thomas, fortune favoured Stephen, who survived the shipwreck only thanks to a well-timed case of stomach illness: “Stephen stayed behind, saved by the best case of diarrhoea ever recorded in history.”

The result was a civil war known as The Anarchy, a period marked by instability, local armed conflicts, and devastation. “It consisted of numerous battles, raids, and burnings—elements typical of medieval warfare,” Thomas told National Geographic.
The voyage had seemed like yet another formality for the Anglo-Norman elite. On board the White Ship travelled young nobles, led by William Adelin, the only legitimate heir of King Henry I of England. The atmosphere was festive and carefree as the ship departed from Barfleur, on the coast of what is today France.

However, in the middle of the night, overconfidence and alcohol consumption among both the crew and the passengers proved fatal.

The Shift of a Dynasty Under the Sign of Tragedy

The catastrophe of the White Ship dramatically exposed the precariousness of the monarchical system and the importance of lineage. “Everything depends on human bodies,” noted Nicholas Paul. Uncertainty over the death or survival of heirs complicated the rules of succession and inheritance, provoking religious anxieties. In medieval thought, the absence of a body made intercessory prayers difficult—prayers considered essential for redemption after death.

Orderic Vitalis, a chronicler of the time, drew a sharp parallel between William the Conqueror’s triumphant invasion of England and the maritime disaster that almost ended the Norman legacy. “The entire kingdom is created thanks to one successful voyage, and may well be destroyed by another, failed one,” Paul concluded.

Thus, the story of the shipwreck endures as one of the greatest turning points of the English Middle Ages. Dynastic succession, once guaranteed by a single bloodline, was suddenly exposed to the whims of fate and nature. The accident not only ended the lives of prominent figures but also gave rise to years of war, political instability, and a redefinition of royal legitimacy.

Reading Comprehension Activity: The Disaster of the White Ship

Year Level: Year 8
NZC: English Level 4 (Reading)
Focus: Identify key ideas, infer meaning, analyse cause and effect, interpret historical information.

A. Multiple-Choice Questions (6)

Choose the best answer.

1. What was the main consequence of the sinking of the White Ship?
   a) The Norman dynasty became stronger
   b) A major succession crisis in England
   c) The discovery of new trade routes
   d) The king’s army was destroyed 
2. Why was William Adelin important to the monarchy?
   a) He was the youngest noble on the ship
   b) He was the king’s military commander
   c) He was the only legitimate male heir of Henry I
   d) He commanded the White Ship 
3. What factor contributed to the shipwreck?
   a) A sudden storm during the voyage
   b) A lack of experienced sailors
   c) Overconfidence and alcohol consumption
   d) An attack by pirates  
4. Why did Stephen of Blois become king instead of Matilda?
   a) He had more military experience
   b) Matilda refused to claim the throne
   c) People believed the monarchy should be ruled by a man
   d) He was King Henry’s oldest son 
5. What does the text suggest about medieval beliefs?
   a) People did not worry about life after death
   b) Ships were believed to be cursed
   c) Finding a body was important for religious reasons
   d) Only kings could pray for the dead 
6. What caused long-term instability in England after 1120?
   a) Stephen’s illness
   b) The loss of young nobles
   c) The sinking of the White Ship and the unclear succession
   d) A French invasion 

B. True/False Statements (6)

Write T (true) or F (false).

1. T The White Ship disaster resulted in the death of nearly 300 people. 
2. T___ Henry I had several legitimate sons who could inherit the throne. 
3. _F__ Matilda was accepted by everyone as the rightful heir. 
4. _T__ Stephen survived the disaster because he was not on the ship. 
5. __T_ The Anarchy was a period of peace and economic growth. 
6. __T_ The disaster revealed weaknesses in the Anglo-Norman system of succession. 

C. Short-Answer Questions (5)

Answer in 1–3 sentences.

1. 1. Why did the disaster cause such a big crisis for the monarchy? Because All that can be the king died on this journey and it was going to no legitimate king or queen.  
   2. How did people at the time interpret disasters like this one? They were sad because they lost the futuerine 
   3.  
   4. What role did Orderic Vitalis play in how we understand the event?
      People at the time interpret disasters like this one 

1. What made the atmosphere on the ship “festive and carefree” before it left?  
2. Explain why the author describes the event as a “turning point” in English history. 

D. Critical-Thinking Questions (3)

Answer in 2–4 sentences. These encourage deeper thinking (NZC Level 4: “ideas”, “thinking beyond the text”).

1. Do you think Matilda should have been accepted as queen? Why or why not?  
2. How might England’s history have changed if William Adelin had survived? Apply this idea to a modern example if you can.
    
3. What does this event teach us about how fragile power systems can be? Apply this idea to a modern example if you can.  

E. Vocabulary (Optional Extension)

Match each word with its meaning:

1. Catastrophic 
2. Succession 
3. Dynasty 
4. Precarious 
5. Devastation 

1. a) A family line of rulers 
2. 
   b) Extremely damaging or disastrous
3. 
   c) The process of inheriting a title or position
4. 
   d) Serious destruction or ruin
5. 
   e) Not secure; easily disrupted

 Good afternoon Matamua this is the 685 game.

As you guys know I am from Samoa I loved to support games rugby every so I Am Telling use all about my weekend. 

On Saturday I went to Auckland by car. Me and my family we drove for a couple of hours. We went at night, in the middle of the night, at 5 a.m. We arrived  in the morning. We went to Auckland for the rugby game of Samoa versus New Zealand. It was a good game, score was 24 to 18. Some of the New Zealand players were like bad. The referee wasn’t paying attention.

In the summer we had couple of the girls from New Zealand choking the samoan girls and referee didn’t pay attention, it was the same in the boys. The players of New Zealand did that and the referee didn’t pay attention. At the end of the day, is just friendly games, it’s not a competition.  I am not going to Auckland for the game of Tonga Vs. Samoa because we got another pastor coming from down in the region to come in do our church. Our pastor is going down to Wellington and do history so it’s a kind of a switch over. We award him with one thousand dollars,Cash. It’s a Samoan and Tongan tradition there we passed down, is called tonga. Kind of like those skirts that someone people were around their waist and also. I went to my uncle’s house after the game. We stay there for a night. We also had McDonald’s, some steaks and fries with chips and burgers and yeah that’s all about my weekend I’ll tell you guys all about Samoa and Tonga rugby lead up Samoa.

Today I will show you my slide about El Salvador

Hi my name is Enosa Toafa. Today I’m going to tell  all of use  how to make one of my Favourite Samoa foods It is called OKA It is very delicious.

Recipe 

 And we all made it for ourselves to eat on Sunday straight. into it the first thing you need to have. to make your OKA is some fish but the name of. The fish that you need is a snapper you well need 3 to 4 fish  then you need a knife 

Then you need Coconut cream and you also need

some Capsicans and some cucumber you need to cut up the Capsicans you do not need to cut it so small and you also have to cut the cucumber then you need to have to rap it cuz you do not want flies to go on it Before you rap it wash the capsicans and the Cucumbers so then you use it will be fresh then wash the fish cuz you do not know if there is blood on the fish then cut open the coconut cream  then first grap a container make sure it’s a big so it can fit your fish the garb the Coconut cream then poor it in the Container that has the fish in then mix it so the 

coconut cream can spread it out and go on the fish fish the you pit your fish and coconut cream in the Fridge so it can get cold you pit it in the fridge for 15 to 20 Minutes and once the time is Finish you pit your Cucumber and your capsicans that you have cut up and that’s is the end.

Weekend Recount

On my weekend I was doing so much. First I moped  the fool, then I want to move the loan. It took up more of my time but I lost my  patience. I held  it in then I went to do the dash and dry them.

 Then I went to vacuum the living room. Then I went to clean my room when I went to wash the car. Then I want to practice singing at my Samoa Church. because all of the people in my church go to Palmerston North to do church there because it is the same. but i do not no what it mean and also my school Celebrate Halloween they had a lot of game like get it in the bucket

And i had lot of fun on friday and i also got wet so much that i had to sit in the sun then i went to watch the rugby game new zealand v toaga and the Score was 40 to new zealand and 14 to toaga now it is new zealand and toa samoa but i Think samoa is go to win because whey have the best team this year 

Name: Enosa Toafa

Date: 24/25

Exercises: Modal Verbs 

Instructions: Fill in the blanks with the correct modal verb (can, could, may, might, must, should, will, would). 

1. I can ride a bicycle without training wheels now. 
2. You should___ eat more vegetables to stay healthy. 
3. She must___ help you with your homework if she finishes hers. 
4. We might___ go to the park later if it stops raining. 
5. He must___ wear a helmet when riding his skateboard. 
6. can___ I borrow your pencil, please? 
7. You must___ not cheat during the test. 
8. I will___ visit my grandparents this weekend. 
9. They could___ be tired after walking for three hours. 
10. She can___ speak French very well when she was younger. 
11. You should___ try to listen carefully in class. 
12. We will___ start the project tomorrow. 
13. He would___ finish the race if he trains harder. 
14. I will___ watch TV after finishing my homework. 
15. Students must must___ always respect their teachers. 
16. may___ you please pass me the notebook? 
17. I will___ go to the library to return my books. 
18. He might___ be upset because he lost his toy. 
19. We should___ practice every day to improve our football skills. 
20. You must ___ not forget to brush your teeth before bed. 

Exercises: Linking Words 

Instructions: Choose the correct linking word to complete the sentences (and, but, because, so, however, although, then, finally, also, after). 

1. I like reading books, and ___ I also enjoy writing stories. 
2. She wanted to go swimming, however___ it started raining. 
3. We went to the zoo, so___ we saw lions, tigers, and bears. 
4. He was tired,because ___ he continued working on his project. 
5. I cleaned my room, then ___ I helped my sister with hers. 
6. Although to the library, we visited the museum. 
7. I enjoy pizza, but ___ I don’t like hamburgers. 
8. First, we finished our homework, then ___ we played outside. 
9. The dog was small, however___ it could run very fast.
10. I like ice cream, but___ chocolate is my favorite flavor. 
11. She wanted to buy the red dress, but___ it was too expensive. 
12. We went shopping, after___ we had lunch at the café. 
13. He studied hard, so___ he passed the test. 
14. I enjoy reading, and I also like painting. 
15. She tried to stay awake,but ___ she fell asleep during the movie. 
16. I will clean the house, then ___ I will wash the dishes. 
17. After finishing my breakfast, I went to school. 
18. I like football, and ___ basketball is also fun. 
19. He was small, but___ he was very strong. 

20. I enjoy summer, and I like winter too.

I think schools should ban tiktok because it doesn’t make the children concentrate on learning. It should be banned because it doesn’t keep these children focused. And I think if they don’t ban it and they do something good and like to put in more educational learning. tiktok like showing how to work out perimeter or algebra or some maths lessons.

 Also some writing or some bit of everything It will overthink their mental health. They think they’re not good enough and then other people’s better than them. They compare themselves to other people. When they see other people’s tiktok online, there’s so many things on tiktok. Like dance routines like showing you how to cook stuff.

 And fixing stuff and it  will control kids’ minds. if their parents tell them to come and eat. they would say no and they would lose track of time. and they will not know when it’s day or when it’s night time.